Wernicke B.P.. Pedersen R. Comparison of recent records on the impact of earthquake hazards of similar magnitude in different countries provide telling contrasts. This new inversion approach may be called the successive approximation (SA) method. Approximately, it consists of three straight segments. (1998). For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription. Using the two data sets obtained from both descending and ascending orbit pairs, we could precisely determine the source parameters of the strong 2003 Bam earthquake. As of March 7, 2005, the total sum of 130,851,677.00 dollars was donated to the Bam earthquake project by more than 40 countries and international agencies (IFRC, 2004a, b, c; UNOCHA, UNDEP, UNESCO, FAO, IOM, WHO, WFP, UNFPA, UNHCR, ILO, and IRC) under the following ten categories: coordination and support services, economic recovery and infrastructure, education, family shelter, non-food items, food, water and sanitation, health, protection/human rights and rule of law, unspecified sectors, and security (USAID, 2004b, c). ReliefWeb, “Rescue Teams Quit Iran Quake Site as the Diggers Move In,” 29 December 2003, 2003b, available online (accessed 20 July 2009). National aid. Wetzel, H. Kaufmann, and J. Zschau, “The 2003 Bam (SE Iran) earthquake: Precise Source Parameters from Satellite Radar Interferometry”, Geophysical Journal International 159, 2004, pp. 1990, 1994), but recent GPS studies have shown a lower rate of ∼2.1 cm yr−1 (e.g. 1-518, PDF copy available online (accessed 20 July 2009). The 2003 Bam (SE Iran) earthquake: precise source parameters from satellite radar interferometry 1 Introduction. Directivity: The variation in seismic wave amplitude as a function of azimuth relative to strike or dip of the fault source caused by the direction movement of the rupture front (= directivity focusing). (c) and (d) are the same as (a) and (b), but for the ascending data. Foreshock: A small earthquake preceding the largest earthquake in an earthquake sequence. The software GFZ-InSAR developed by the GeoForschungsZentrum Potsdam (GFZ) was used for the data processing. Tealeb A.. McQuarrie N. The earthquake, occurring at the early hours of the morning in winter when most people were in bed, resulted in the highest casualty rate and the most profound social impact in the recorded post-1900 history of devastating urban earthquakes in Iran (see Table 1 and Figure 2 in Berberian, 2005), in spite of its moderate magnitude. In comparison, Talebian et al. (c) shows the Sobel Edge filtered descending LOS displacements for detecting the rupture trace, and (d) the derived fault (dotted yellow line) ruptured by the 2003 Bam earthquake drawn on the optical image. Historical Record of Earthquakes in Persia, Radical Interpretations of Disasters and Radical Solutions, United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, United Nations Inter-Agency Secretariat for International Strategy for Disaster Reduction. The quake occurred at 01:56 UTC (5:26 AM Iran Standard Time) on December 26, 2003. Iran has been fortunate in recent years in that its large urban centers have largely been saved from a direct hit from a large-magnitude (>7.0) earthquake. UN Flash Appeal, Bam Earthquake of 26 December 2003: Islamic Republic of Iran Relief, Recovery and Immediate Rehabilitation, United Nations, 2004. Total Damage and Losses (in USD) . Additionally, another U.S. The connecting line is about 5 km, so then the total length of the ruptured fault is estimated to be 24–26 km. As of January 15, 2004, the USAID Disaster Assistance Response Team (USAID/DART) and U.S. Department of Defense (USDOD) assistance to Iran was 3,702,645.00 dollars and 2,012,285.00 dollars, respectively (USAID, 2004b, c). S1 (2005), S345-S374, The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, CA, USA,. Annually, over 5,000 earthquakes are recorded worldwide with 3,000 earthquakes felt by human populations. The Bam earthquake of 2003 December 26, occurred near the southern termination of the NâS trending Nayband and Gowk fault system (Fig. (2004) has presented a preliminary source model for the Bam earthquake based on the ENVISAT ASAR descending interferogram. The Rayleigh-like speed of the Bam rupture implies that the Bam earthquake fault was a weak and mature seismogenic fault that broke easily (Bouchon et al., 2006). M. Ghafory-Ashtiany, and R. Mousavi, “History, Geography, and Economy of Bam,” Earthquake Spectra 21, Sp. S1, S3-S11, The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, Calif., DOI:10.1193/1.2101861, 2005. The devastating earthquake at Bam, Iran, in 2003 was caused by the rupture of a rare, hidden fault that is invisible at the surface, experts say. According to the World Bank (2004), total economic damage was estimated at around 1.5 billion dollars. It results consequently in an unusually high stress drop of at least 6 MPa on this fault segment, implying that a strong asperity was involved in the rupture process. (1993) for the 1992 Landers earthquake, California. General earthquake impact. R. Wang, Y. Xia, H. Grosser, H.-U. In industrialized and developed countries maintaining the life-safety and controlling the financial loss during a major natural disaster are minimum levels of acceptable risk (Bozorgnia and Bertero, 2004); but in some developing countries including Iran, the political and socio-economically acceptable level of risk is such that governments implicitly accept a high risk of losing lives of tens of thousands of people and billions of dollars of financial loss after each earthquake. The large number of collapsed buildings also hindered search- and-rescue teams. 4a). The middle one disappeared below the city area of Bam, where a lack of coherence prevents its tracking. As a result of such bureaucratic delays, victims faced serious asphyxiation, suffocation, and hypothermia, leading to a dramatically increased death toll. The seismically most active fault in the considered region is the Gowk fault (Fig. In our source model, we have considered three fault segments which were detected by using a Sobel Edge Filter on the phase-unwrapped deformation field. K. Tierney, B. Khazai, L.T.
- The most widely accepted magnitude estimate of the earthquake was 6.6 and was estimated by the United States Geological Survey. The highest intensity of ground shaking caused by the earthquake (Shoja-Taheri et al., 2005; Bouchon et al., 2006) was observed in the city of Bam itself, which was built on top of an earthquake fault line (FIGURE 3), and where approximately 12 million metric tons of collapsed building debris were piled up (NCC, 2003/2004; SCI, 2004; USAID, 2004a; Maheri et al., 2005; Maheri, 2005; Eshghi and Naserasadi, 2005). Fourteen years after a deadly quake hit the city of Bam in the southeastern province of Kerman once again deep-seated fear of devastating quakes has gripped people all over the country. Bam was destroyed completely, >43,000 people were killed, and 30,000 were injured. BHRC (Building and Housing Research Centre), The History of Bam Accelerograph Station; Iran Strong Motion (ISMN), Serial No. The qanāt failure caused severe damage to the underground water supply network of the Bam sub-province for drinking water as well as for the irrigation of the date palm and orange groves. Jónsson S. Three geophysical factors (Bouchon et al., 2006), whose unfortunate combination led to the strong ground shaking with a peak vertical ground acceleration of nearly 1.0 g/980 cm/s², and horizontal acceleration of 0.8 g/779 c/s² (BHRC, 2003, 2004; Shoja-Taheri et al., 2005), coupled with the poor quality of the physical infrastructure and a lack of adequate risk management by the Iranian government led to the destruction suffered by the city of Bam. Reconstruction efforts. To increase the computation efficiency, the InSAR data were filtered to a spatial resolution of 0.5 × 0.5 km2. Jackson J.A. In the Bam region GPS results suggest a motion of only 1.4 cm yr−1 (Nilforoushan et al. The 6.7 Magnitude earthquake struck at 01:58 GMT 12/26/03. Under this condition, the coefficients Smn in eq. Issue. Differential ENVISAT ASAR interferometry has provided high-quality deformation data for the Mw= 6.5 Bam (SE Iran) earthquake of 2003 December 26. UNIHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Since then, this technique has been used to map the deformation field of several dozen earthquakes world wide (see e.g. 2003; Vernant et al. The acceleratione due to gravity at the Earth’s surface is 976 to 987 Gal. ISC (International Seismological Center), ISC Earthquake Bulletin: 1904 to 2004, 2006; complete Bulletin and catalogue data available on CD-ROM (see Products page) (accessed 20 July 2009). Next came a second wall behind which were the homes of the more eminent and affluent citizens, and finally, protected by a third wall, and on the pinnacle of the Citadel were the seat of the governor and the residence of high dignitaries and officials. Verdel C. Performance of Building Roofs in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake. 1984; Jackson & McKenzie 1984; Walker & Jackson 2002; Vernant et al. The 2003 Bam earthquake: On 26 December 2003, an earthquake measuring 6.6 on the moment magnitude scale struck the ancient city of Bam in Iran, killing more than 26,000 people and leaving 75,000 homeless. On December 26, 2003 a large earthquake of magnitude 6.7 (M s) shook the Bam district located in southeastern Iran.About 80% of buildings totally collapsed. A concentrated pulse-like ground motion generated by constructive interference S-waves traveling ahead of the tip of a rupturing fault is called ‘directivity pulse’. The Iranian spiritual leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei yesterday managed to get to Bam, three days after the earthquake which may have killed 30,000 of ⦠Furthermore, the earthquake caused approximately 53 million dollars in agricultural loss, 30 million in tourism, 15.8 million in industrial loss, and 91.3 million dollars in private business loss. H. Gaube, “Bam - A Provincial Center,” in idem, ed., Iranian Cities, New York, 1979, pp. DOI:10.1193/1.2098861. 91-100. The exact extent of leakage from petroleum storage tanks and barrels (Eshghi and Razzaghi, 2005), causing soil pollution and underground water contamination, has not been investigated. ISIRI, “The 1969 Iranian Building Safety Code During Earthquakes, Code No. 163-69. The maximum width of the ruptured area reaches about 12 km. Dec. 27, 2003; A powerful earthquake rocked Bam, an ancient city in southeastern Iran, early Friday morning, killing thousands and destroying 70 to 90 percent of the residential areas. The Bam earthquake involved ground surface rupture of nearly vertical north-south trending right-lateral strike-slip fault (Talebian et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2004; Funning et al., 2005) extending directly southward from Bam for about 15 km (FIGURE 3). Since 1900, earthquakes in Iran have killed more than 164,000 people, while in the North America only 1,000 lives were lost during earthquakes. R. Langenbach, 2005. White stars show a few teleseismic locations of the epicentre (, 2003). 120-39, PDF copy available online (accessed 20 July 2009). Phase unwrapping was uncritical. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide, This PDF is available to Subscribers Only. Berberian M. It was the widespread failure of poor quality buildings that contributed to so many deaths in the area. Rayleigh wave: A type of surface-wave, having a retrograde, elliptical motion at the free surface. IFRC: International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Issue. 2 by using (a) the successive approximation method and (b) the least-squares fitting method with the smoothing condition. Fielding, “Surface displacements and source parameters of the 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake from Envisat advanced synthetic aperture radar imagery,” Geophysical Research Letter, 110, B09406. In the next step, we fixed this fault geometry and determined the inhomogeneous slip distribution by a joint inversion from both descending and ascending ENVISAT ASAR interferograms (Figs 2a and b). The earthquake was therefore simulated by three rectangular fault planes with length and strike of (14 km, 357°), (5 km, 35°) and (7 km, 0°), respectively. Talebian M. The city of Bam is located directly in the Bam fault zone and bounds about the known main branch of this fault on the east. Due to the lack of any form of disaster planning and management, a belated reaction in emergency search-and- rescue operation at the local, provincial, and national level of emergency response was compounded further by the lack of coordination and communication in the first few vital days after the event between those on the scene and governmental officials operating elsewhere. The medieval circumvallated inner city of Bam (Arg, Kohandež [the Old Citadel], FIGURE 2) was considered a strong fortified town in the 11th and 12th centuries when it was captured and fortified by theSeljuk (Saljuq) Turks. USDOD: The United States of America, Department of Defense. The Bam earthquake struck in the early hours of December 26. S. M. Richwalski read the manuscript and gave constructive suggestions for improvement. Issue. The present city of Bam (FIGURE 3) was founded in 1840, when most of the population moved from the medieval circumvallated inner city. The buildings in this area are mostly made from ⦠Wetzel, H. Kaufmann, J. Zschau, The 2003 Bam (SE Iran) earthquake: precise source parameters from satellite radar interferometry, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 159, Issue 3, December 2004, Pages 917–922, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02476.x. Bam is situated within the NaybandâGowkâSabzevaran (NGS) fault system, the western of the strikeâslip fault systems bordering the Lut desert. In addition, optical remote sensing data show that the Bam fault is not a single fault but consists of a 4–5 km wide fault system with the known main branch running between the city of Bam and Baravat. The 34 international rescue teams from 27 countries that arrived in Bam in the first few days of the operation were paralyzed by the chaos that reigned in the first few days of the disaster. Razzaghi, “Performance of Industrial Facilities in the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake,” Earthquake Spectra 21, Sp. The strike-slip fault corresponds about to the southern fault segment of our source model shown in Fig. 1861-887, PDF copy available online (accessed 20 July 2009). Drawing the ruptured fault on the optical remote sensing image (Fig. The thick white line is the −25 cm contour (negative = right-lateral), marking about the rupture area. 1998) seismic a⦠Michel G.W. The Mw = 6.5 Bam earthquake occurred on 2003 December 26 at 05:56 local time. For example, the derived slip distribution, which gives the best-fit to the data, may exhibit an unrealistic oscillatory character. [1] An M w 6.5 earthquake devastated the town of Bam in southeast Iran on 26 December 2003. 137-138. Although the earthquake fault slipped at shallow depth, little of this slip reached the ground surface, and the earthquake fault was unknown before the 2003 earthquake. Jackson, M. Qorashi, and R. Walker “Surface Ruptures and Building damage of the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake Mapped by Satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometric Correlation,” Journal Geophysical Research 110, DOI: 10.1029/2004JB003299, 2005. Another foreshock was strongly felt 35 minutes before the main shock (December 26 at 04:33 local time). All these reflected the failure of coordination and smooth transition through the phases of response, early recovery, and long-term recovery process. Additional constraints such as smoothing are not needed. DOI:10.1029/2004JB003338, 2005. B. Hosseini Hashemi, and M. Jafari, “Performance of Batten Columns in Steel Buildings During the Bam Earthquake of 26 December 2003”, Journal of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering 5/4, Special Issue, Tehran , 2004, pp. In the case of descending orbit, the maximum uplift along the LOS reaches about 30 cm and is located at (28.981°N, 58.381°E) ± 100 m. The maximum subsidence cannot be located such accurately. The quake had its epicentre near the ancient city of Bam - most of its buildings have been flattened. All these earthquakes revealed the enormous scale of destruction resulting from urban earthquake disasters in cities built with unsafe buildings on, or adjacent to, the seismic faults, as well as an absence of central loss-reduction policies and practices including implementation and enforcement of earthquake-resistant design and construction practices, public education and preparedness programs with respect to national, provincial, and local community loss-reduction program. According to official figures, 10% of the population lived below the universal poverty line of less than one US dollar a day (UN Flash Appeal, 2004; SCI, 2004; Tiernet et al., 2005). S1, S375-S393, The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, Oakland, Calif., DOI:10.1193/1.2098790, 2005. RADIX (Radical Interpretations of Disasters and Radical Solutions) (accessed 20 July 2009). Idem, Preliminary Report of the Bam Earthquake, Tehran, 2004. Though the time interval for our first interferogram is about half a year, the coherence value is still very high and the interferometric fringes are very clear.
- The death toll was extremely high 26,271 people dead and ⦠Bam ⦠The Friday mosque of the Bam Arg, which stands at the site of the destroyed medieval Friday mosque (# 1 in FIGURE 2), was last repaired in 1751 (Gaube, 1979). With data available only from strong distant earthquakes mostly along the Gowk fault, the seismic hazard in the area was rated moderate (i.e. Patterns of historical earthquake rupture in the Iranian plateau, The 1994 Sefidabeh earthquake in eastern Iran: blind thrusting and bedding-plane slip on a growing anticline, and active tectonics of the Sistan suture zone, Effects of recent revisions to the geomagnetic reversal time scale on estimates of current plate motions, Estimation of an earthquake focal mechanism from a satellite radar interferogram: application to the December 4, 1992 Landers aftershock, Engineering geology and geotechnical aspects of Bam earthquake (preliminary report), The displacement field of the Landers earthquake mapped by radar interferometry, GPS constraints on Africa (Nubia) and Arabia plate motions, Cenozoic evolution of Neotethys and implications for the causes of plate motions, GPS network monitoring the Arabia-Eurasia collision deformation in Iran, Fault slip distribution of two June 2000 Mw 6.5 earthquakes in South Iceland estimated from joint inversion of InSAR and GPS measurements, Joint estimation of afterslip rate and postseismic relaxation following the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, REVEL: A model for recent plate velocities from space geodesy, The 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake: rupture of a blind strike-slip fault, Aftershock seismicity of the Bam earthquake, European Geosciences Union -1st General Assembly (Abstract EGU04-A-07893), Contemporary crustal deformation and plate kinematics in Middle East constrained by GPS measurements in Iran and Northern Oman, Offset and evolution of the Gowk fault, S.E. The geo-coded area are limited by the ASTER's DEM. Tobin, and F. Krimgold, “Special and Public Policy Issues Following the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake,” Earthquake Spectra 21, Sp. Dollars 15,556 was simply not enough to rebuild, while poorer people who had yet to be targeted for assistance were often hesitant to use government loans. Ghafory-Ashtiany M (1999) Rescue operation and reconstruction of recent earthquakes in Iran. IRNA (Islamic Republic News Agency) (accessed 20 July 2009). Select recovery documents and publications. USAID (United States Agency for International Development), Estimated Damage Caused by the Bam Earthquake 1/5/2004, 2004a, available online (accessed 20 July 2009). Fielding, et al., “The 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake: rupture of a blind strike-slip fault,” Geophysysical Reseasrch Letters 31, (11), L11611, DOI:10.1029/2004GL020058, 2004. DOI:10.1193/1.2113167. Idem, F. Naeim, and M. Mehrain, 2005. Arg-é Bam on the other hand, the world's largest adobe structure, was destroyed in an earthquake in December 2003. Meanwhile vulnerability to earthquakes in Iran is growing at an alarming rate (see Figure 2 in Berberian, 2005). Mon 29 Dec 2003 21.07 EST. Aftershock: A small earthquake occurring shortly after a larger earthquake in roughly the same location. 1-1979. Using the three data pairs (9192/6687, 9192/9693 and 8956/10 459), we generated one interferogram and two differential interferograms. After the earthquake a field investigation was organised by Halcrow Group Limited. Moreover, the convergence rate is not only accommodated by the Zagros but also to the north in several areas (Vernant et al. Right: (e)–(h) are as same as (a)–(d), but using the slip model obtained from the least-squares method (Fig. Reigber Ch. DART: USAID Disaster Assistance Response Team. For shallow events, such as the Bam earthquake, we may suppose that any two orthogonal slip terms will produce two incoherent surface deformations. At the SE end of the Zagros, the Gowk and Bam faults are both of the right-lateral strike-slip type accommodating the difference of motion of the Lut block relative to the Central Iranian block (CIB) with a rate of approximately 0.8 cm yr−1 (Vernant et al. It has been a walled stronghold in the region between Kermān and Baluchistan provinces, plagued by repeated incursions and banditry, and frequently sacked by invading Afghans, Ghozz Turks, and Baluchis. The result of these buildings being flattened by the earthquake had killed about 26,761 people and 30,000 people injured in which a third were ⦠Many people were believed to be buried under rubble. The fault-plane solution indicates that it was a right-lateral strike-slip earthquake as expected for the Bam fault. No organized rubble removal effort, and hence no local search-and-rescue team was present during the first twenty-four hours of the earthquake, and thus the local citizens were mainly responsible for clearing the rubble and engaging in rescue work as much as they could with their bare hands. Many were anxious over whether they would be able to repay their loans on time. This was 05:28 am local time. Issue. In comparison, it appears that the slip distribution was better resolved by the SA method than by the LS method. Bahshayesh M.K. 101-109. 99-132. Background: On 26 December 2003, an earthquake measuring 6.5 on the Richter scale occurred in the city of Bam in southeastern Iran. Death toll numbers as high as 80,000 were rumoured on the street and 70,000 reported in the media. Is an agricultural area, growing a lot of fruits and most of these earthquakes in..., revised 1989 as Standard Code no national Eathquake Information Center ), total economic damage was to... 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